police figures

1) (print) (of animal, person) orma f., impronta f.; (of vehicle) tracce f.pl.

2) (course, trajectory) (of missile, aircraft) traiettoria f., rotta f.; (of storm) movimento m., percorso m.; fig. (of person) traccia f., pista f.

3) (path, road) sentiero m.

4) sport pista f.

5) ferr. binario m., rotaia f.; AE (platform) binario m.

6) mus. (of record) solco m.; (of tape) pista f. magnetica; (of CD) traccia f.; (song) brano m.

7) inform. (band) traccia f., pista f.

modificatore sport [ race] su pista

••

verbo transitivo inseguire, essere sulle tracce di [ person]; seguire le orme di [ animal]; seguire la traiettoria di [rocket, plane]; seguire l'orbita di [ comet]

verbo intransitivo cinem. fare una carrellata

- track down

* * *

1) (a mark left, especially a footprint etc: They followed the lion's tracks.) traccia

2) (a path or rough road: a mountain track.) strada, percorso

3) ((also racetrack) a course on which runners, cyclists etc race: a running track; ( also adjective) the 100 metres sprint and other track events.) pista

4) (a railway line.) binario

- track-suit

* * *

1) (print) (of animal, person) orma f., impronta f.; (of vehicle) tracce f.pl.

2) (course, trajectory) (of missile, aircraft) traiettoria f., rotta f.; (of storm) movimento m., percorso m.; fig. (of person) traccia f., pista f.

3) (path, road) sentiero m.

4) sport pista f.

5) ferr. binario m., rotaia f.; AE (platform) binario m.

6) mus. (of record) solco m.; (of tape) pista f. magnetica; (of CD) traccia f.; (song) brano m.

7) inform. (band) traccia f., pista f.

modificatore sport [ race] su pista

••

verbo transitivo inseguire, essere sulle tracce di [ person]; seguire le orme di [ animal]; seguire la traiettoria di [rocket, plane]; seguire l'orbita di [ comet]

verbo intransitivo cinem. fare una carrellata

- track down

  15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.

  400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.

  202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.

  137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.

  410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.

  714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.

  1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.

  1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.

  1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.

  1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.

  1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).

  1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.

  1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.

  1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.

  1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.

  1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.

  1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.

  1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.

  1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.

  1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.

  1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.

  1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.

  1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.

  1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.

  1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.

  1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.

  1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.

  1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).

  1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.

  1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.

  1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.

  1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.

   King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.

   King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.

  1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.

  1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.

  1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.

   Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.

   Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.

   Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.

  1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.

  1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.

  1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.

  1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.

  1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.

  1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.

  1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.

  1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.

  1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.

  1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.

  1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.

  1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.

  1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.

  1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.

  1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.

  1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.

  1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.

  1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.

  1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.

  1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.

  1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.

  1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.

  1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.

  1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.

  1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.

   Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.

   King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.

  1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of

   Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.

   Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.

   King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.

  1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.

  1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.

  1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.

  1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.

  1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.

  1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.

   January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.

   Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.

  1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.

  1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.

  1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.

  1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.

  1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.

   May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.

   March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.

   Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.

  1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.

  1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January

  1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.

  1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."

   28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.

   February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.

   April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.

  1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.

  1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."

  1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.

   6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.

   8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.

  1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.

  1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.

  1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

   January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.

  1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.

  1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.

  1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.

   March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.

   March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.

  1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July

  1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.

  1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).

  1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.

  1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.

   January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.

   January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.

   November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.

   October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.

   January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.

   May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.

   October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.

   January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).

   United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.

   January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.

   1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

   May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.

   June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.

   February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.

   January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.

   July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.

  2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

track

A n

1 ( print) (of animal, person) empreintes fpl, traces fpl ; ( of vehicle) traces fpl ; we followed his track(s) to the bank of the river nous avons suivi ses traces or ses empreintes jusqu'au bord de la rivière ; the (tyre) tracks led to the lake les traces (de pneu) menaient au lac ;

2 lit, fig (course, trajectory) ( of person) trace f ; (of missile, aircraft, storm) trajectoire f ; to be on the track of être sur la trace or piste de [person] ; être sur la voie de [discovery] ; she knew the police were on her track elle savait que la police était sur sa trace or piste ; to cover one's tracks brouiller les pistes ; the negotiations were on track les négociations se déroulaient comme prévu ; to be on the right track être sur la bonne piste ; to put sb on the right track mettre qn sur la bonne piste ; to be on the wrong track faire fausse route ; to set sb on the wrong track faire faire fausse route à qn ; to keep track of [person] se tenir au courant de [developments, events] ; suivre le fil de [conversation] ; [company, authority] se tenir au courant de la situation de [customer, taxpayer] ; [police, race official] suivre les mouvements de [criminal, competitor] ; [computer] tenir à jour [bank account, figures] ; tenir à jour les détails concernant [person] ; we have to keep track of the houses we rent out nous devons tenir à jour les fichiers des maisons que nous louons ; it's hard to keep track of all one's old colleagues il est difficile de ne pas perdre de vue tous ses anciens collègues ; I must keep track of the time il ne faut pas que j'oublie l'heure ; to lose track of perdre de vue [friend] ; perdre la trace de [document, aircraft, suspect] ; perdre le fil de [conversation] ; to lose track of (the) time perdre la notion du temps ; to make tracks for sth se diriger vers qch ; we'd better be making tracks il est temps de partir ; to stop dead in one's tracks s'arrêter net ;

3 (path, rough road) sentier m, chemin m ;

4 Sport piste f ; 16 laps of the track 16 tours de piste ; athletics/speedway track piste d'athlétisme/de vitesse ; (motor-)racing track ( open-air) circuit m ; ( enclosed) autodrome m ; cycling track vélodrome m ; dog-racing track cynodrome m ;

5 Rail voie f ferrée ; US ( platform) quai m ; to leave the track(s) [train] dérailler ;

6 Mus (of record, tape, CD) morceau m ; ( song) chanson f ; a 16-track CD un disque compact qui a 16 morceaux ;

7 Audio, Comput ( band) piste f ;

8 Aut (on wheel of tank, tractor) chenille f ; ( distance between wheels) voie f, écartement m de voie ;

9 ( rail) ( for curtain) tringle f ; ( for sliding door) rail m ;

10 US Sch ( stream) groupe m de niveau ; the top/middle/bottom track le groupe des élèves forts/moyens/faibles ; the first track ≈ le groupe des élèves forts ; to place students in tracks répartir les élèves en groupes de niveau.

B modif Sport [event, championship, race] de vitesse ; track meet US épreuves fpl de vitesse.

C vtr ( follow path of) suivre la trace de [person, animal] ; suivre la progression de [storm, hurricane] ; suivre la trajectoire de [rocket, plane, comet, satellite] ; the police tracked the terrorists to their hideout la police a suivi la trace des terroristes jusqu'à leur cachette.

D vi Cin faire un travelling.

to come from the wrong side of the tracks venir des quartiers pauvres ; three years down the track ( in future) dans trois ans ; ( in present) ça fait trois ans.

■ track down:

▶ track [sb/sth] down, track down [sb/sth] retrouver [person, object, file] ; they finally tracked the gang down to their hideout ils ont fini par suivre la trace de la bande jusqu'à sa cachette.

play [pleɪ]

jeu ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (e), 1 (f), 1 (h), 1 (i) tour ⇒ 1 (c) stratagème ⇒ 1 (d) pièce (de théâtre) ⇒ 1 (g) intérêt ⇒ 1 (j) jouer à ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (h) jouer ⇒ 2 (b), 2 (c), 2 (e)-(g), 2 (i)-(k), 3 (a)-(e), 3 (h) faire jouer ⇒ 2 (d) jouer de ⇒ 2 (m) mettre ⇒ 2 (n) s'amuser ⇒ 3 (a) se jouer ⇒ 3 (f)

1 noun

(a) (fun, recreation) jeu m;

∎ I like to watch the children at play j'aime regarder les enfants jouer;

∎ the aristocracy at play l'aristocratie en train de se détendre;

∎ to say sth in play dire qch en plaisantant ou pour rire;

∎ play on words jeu m de mots, calembour m

(b) Sport

∎ play starts at one o'clock le match commence à une heure;

∎ play on the centre court is starting le match sur le court central commence;

∎ after some very boring play in the first half… après une première mi-temps très ennuyeuse…;

∎ there was some nice play from Brooks Brooks a réussi de belles actions ou a bien joué;

∎ to keep the ball in play garder la balle en jeu;

∎ out of play sorti, hors jeu;

∎ rain stopped play la partie a été interrompue par la pluie;

∎ American she scored off a passing play elle a marqué un but après une combinaison de passes;

∎ American the coach calls the plays l'entraîneur choisit les combinaisons

(c) (turn) tour m;

∎ whose play is it? c'est à qui de jouer?

(d) (manoeuvre) stratagème m;

∎ it was a play to get money/their sympathy c'était un stratagème pour obtenir de l'argent/pour s'attirer leur sympathie;

∎ he is making a play for the presidency il se lance dans la course à la présidence;

∎ she made a play for my boyfriend elle a fait des avances à mon copain

(e) (gambling) jeu m;

∎ I lost heavily at last night's play j'ai perdu gros au jeu hier soir

(f) (activity, interaction) jeu m;

∎ the result of a complex play of forces le résultat d'un jeu de forces complexe;

∎ to come into play entrer en jeu;

∎ to bring sth into play mettre qch en jeu

(g) Theatre pièce f (de théâtre);

∎ Shakespeare's plays les pièces fpl ou le théâtre de Shakespeare;

∎ to be in a play jouer dans une pièce;

∎ it's been ages since I've seen or gone to see a play ça fait des années que je ne suis pas allé au théâtre;

∎ radio play pièce f radiophonique;

∎ television play dramatique f

(h) Technology (slack, give) jeu m;

∎ there's too much play in the socket il y a trop de jeu dans la douille;

∎ give the rope more play donnez plus de mou à la corde;

∎ figurative to give or to allow full play to sth donner libre cours à qch

(i) (of sun, colours) jeu m;

∎ I like the play of light and shadow in his photographs j'aime les jeux d'ombre et de lumière dans ses photos

(j) familiar (attention, interest) intérêt^□ m;

∎ the summit meeting is getting a lot of media play les médias font beaucoup de tapage ou battage autour de ce sommet;

∎ in my opinion she's getting far too much play à mon avis, on s'intéresse beaucoup trop à elle^□ ;

∎ they made a lot of play or a big play about his war record ils ont fait tout un plat de son passé militaire

2 transitive verb

(a) (games, cards) jouer à;

∎ to play football/tennis jouer au football/tennis;

∎ to play poker/chess jouer au poker/aux échecs;

∎ to play hide-and-seek jouer à cache-cache;

∎ the children were playing dolls/soldiers les enfants jouaient à la poupée/aux soldats;

∎ how about playing some golf after work? si on faisait une partie de golf après le travail?;

∎ do you play any sports? pratiquez-vous un sport?;

∎ squash is played indoors le squash se pratique en salle;

∎ to play the game Sport jouer selon les règles; figurative jouer le jeu;

∎ I won't play his game je ne vais pas entrer dans son jeu;

∎ she's playing games with you elle te fait marcher;

∎ familiar to play it cool ne pas s'énerver^□, garder son calme^□ ;

∎ American to play favorites faire du favoritisme;

∎ to play sb for a fool rouler qn;

∎ familiar the meeting's next week, how shall we play it? la réunion aura lieu la semaine prochaine, quelle va être notre stratégie?^□ ;

∎ to play it safe ne pas prendre de risque, jouer la sécurité

(b) (opposing player or team) jouer contre, rencontrer;

∎ Italy plays Brazil in the finals l'Italie joue contre ou rencontre le Brésil en finale;

∎ I played him at chess j'ai joué aux échecs avec lui;

∎ he will play Karpov il jouera contre Karpov;

∎ I'll play you for the drinks je vous joue les consommations

(c) (match) jouer, disputer;

∎ to play a match against sb disputer un match avec ou contre qn;

∎ how many tournaments has he played this year? à combien de tournois a-t-il participé cette année?;

∎ the next game will be played on Sunday la prochaine partie aura lieu dimanche

(d) (include on the team → player) faire jouer;

∎ the coach didn't play her until the second half l'entraîneur ne l'a fait entrer (sur le terrain) qu'à la deuxième mi-temps

(e) (card, chess piece) jouer;

∎ to play spades/trumps jouer pique/atout;

∎ how should I play this hand? comment devrais-je jouer cette main?;

∎ she played her ace elle a joué son as; figurative elle a abattu sa carte maîtresse;

∎ figurative he plays his cards close to his chest il cache son jeu

(f) (position) jouer;

∎ he plays winger/defence il joue ailier/en défense

(g) (shot, stroke) jouer;

∎ she played a chip shot to the green elle a fait un coup coché jusque sur le green;

∎ try playing your backhand more essayez de faire plus de revers;

∎ to play a six iron (in golf) jouer un fer numéro six;

∎ he played the ball to me il m'a envoyé la balle

(h) (gamble on → stock market, slot machine) jouer à;

∎ to play the horses jouer aux courses;

∎ to play the property market spéculer sur le marché immobilier;

∎ he played the red/the black il a misé sur le rouge/le noir

(i) (joke, trick)

∎ to play a trick/joke on sb jouer un tour/faire une farce à qn;

∎ your memory's playing tricks on you votre mémoire vous joue des tours

(j) Cinema & Theatre (act → role, part) jouer, interpréter;

∎ Cressida was played by Joan Dobbs le rôle de Cressida était interprété par Joan Dobbs;

∎ who played the godfather in Coppola's movie? qui jouait le rôle du parrain dans le film de Coppola?;

∎ figurative to play a part or role in sth prendre part ou contribuer à qch;

∎ an affair in which prejudice plays its part une affaire dans laquelle les préjugés entrent pour beaucoup ou jouent un rôle important

(k) Cinema & Theatre (perform at → theatre, club)

∎ they played Broadway last year ils ont joué à Broadway l'année dernière;

∎ 'Othello' is playing the Strand for another week 'Othello' est à l'affiche du Strand pendant encore une semaine;

∎ he's now playing the club circuit il se produit maintenant dans les clubs

(l) (act as)

∎ to play the fool faire l'idiot ou l'imbécile;

∎ some doctors play God il y a des médecins qui se prennent pour Dieu sur terre;

∎ to play host to sb recevoir qn;

∎ to play the hero jouer les héros;

∎ one played the heavy while the other asked the questions l'un jouait les méchants tandis que l'autre posait les questions;

∎ don't play the wise old professor with me! ce n'est pas la peine de jouer les grands savants avec moi!;

∎ British familiar play the white man! sois sympa!

(m) (instrument) jouer de; (note, melody, waltz) jouer;

∎ to play the violin jouer du violon;

∎ to play the blues jouer du blues;

∎ they're playing our song/Strauss ils jouent notre chanson/du Strauss;

∎ to play scales on the piano faire des gammes au piano

(n) (put on → record, tape) passer, mettre; (→ radio) mettre, allumer; (→ tapedeck, jukebox) faire marcher;

∎ don't play the stereo so loud ne mets pas la chaîne si fort;

∎ he's in his room playing records il écoute des disques dans sa chambre;

∎ can you play some Pink Floyd? tu peux mettre quelque chose des Pink Floyd?;

∎ I'll play the first side British again or American over for you je vous repasse ou je vous fais réécouter la première face

(o) (direct → beam, nozzle) diriger (on sur);

∎ he played his torch over the cave walls il promena le faisceau de sa lampe sur les murs de la grotte

(p) (fish) fatiguer

(q) American (idiom)

∎ to play both ends against the middle jouer sur les deux tableaux

3 intransitive verb

(a) (amuse oneself) jouer, s'amuser; (frolic → children, animals) folâtrer, s'ébattre;

∎ I like to work hard and play hard quand je travaille, je travaille, quand je m'amuse, je m'amuse;

∎ he didn't mean to hurt you, he was only playing il ne voulait pas te faire de mal, c'était juste pour jouer;

∎ don't play on the street! ne jouez pas dans la rue!;

∎ to play with dolls/with guns jouer à la poupée/à la guerre

(b) Sport jouer;

∎ to play well/badly/regularly jouer bien/mal/régulièrement;

∎ to play against sb/a team jouer contre qn/une équipe;

∎ to play in goal être goal;

∎ it's her (turn) to play c'est à elle de jouer, c'est (à) son tour;

∎ to play in a tournament participer à un tournoi;

∎ he plays in the Italian team il joue dans l'équipe d'Italie;

∎ she played into the left corner elle a envoyé la balle dans l'angle gauche;

∎ try playing to his backhand essayez de jouer son revers;

∎ to play high/low (in cards) jouer une forte/basse carte;

∎ do you play? est-ce que tu sais jouer?;

∎ to play to win jouer pour gagner;

∎ to play dirty ne pas jouer franc jeu; figurative ne pas jouer le jeu;

∎ to play fair jouer franc jeu; figurative jouer le jeu;

∎ to play into sb's hands faire le jeu de qn;

∎ you're playing right into his hands! tu entres dans son jeu!;

∎ to play for time essayer de gagner du temps;

∎ to play safe ne pas prendre de risques, jouer la sécurité

(c) (gamble) jouer;

∎ to play high or for high stakes jouer gros (jeu);

∎ to play for drinks/for money jouer les consommations/de l'argent

(d) Music (person, band, instrument) jouer; (record) passer;

∎ I heard a guitar playing j'entendais le son d'une guitare;

∎ music played in the background (recorded) des haut-parleurs diffusaient de la musique d'ambiance; (band) un orchestre jouait en fond sonore;

∎ is that Strauss playing? est-ce que c'est du Strauss que l'on entend?;

∎ a radio was playing upstairs on entendait une radio en haut;

∎ the stereo was playing full blast on avait mis la chaîne à fond

(e) Cinema & Theatre (act) jouer;

∎ the last movie she played in le dernier film dans lequel elle a joué

(f) Cinema & Theatre (show, play, movie) se jouer;

∎ Hamlet is playing tonight on joue Hamlet ce soir;

∎ the movie is playing to full or packed houses le film fait salle comble;

∎ the same show has been playing there for five years cela fait cinq ans que le même spectacle est à l'affiche;

∎ now playing at all Park Cinemas actuellement dans toutes les salles (de cinéma) Park;

∎ what's playing at the Rex? qu'est-ce qui passe au Rex?;

∎ the company will be playing in the provinces la compagnie va faire une tournée en province

(g) (feign) faire semblant;

∎ to play dead faire le mort;

∎ to play innocent or familiar dumb faire l'innocent, jouer les innocents;

∎ familiar to play hard to get se faire désirer^□

(h) (breeze, sprinkler, light)

∎ to play (on) jouer (sur);

∎ sun played on the water le soleil jouait sur l'eau;

∎ a smile played on or about or over his lips un sourire jouait sur ses lèvres;

∎ lightning played across the sky le ciel était zébré d'éclairs

►► play area aire f de jeux

➲ play about intransitive verb

British (have fun → children) jouer, s'amuser; (frolic) s'ébattre, folâtrer;

∎ it's time he stopped playing about and settled down il est temps qu'il arrête de s'amuser et qu'il se fixe

➲ play about with inseparable transitive verb

(a) (fiddle with, tamper with)

∎ to play about with sth jouer avec ou tripoter qch;

∎ stop playing about with the aerial arrête de jouer avec ou de tripoter l'antenne;

∎ I don't think we should be playing about with genes à mon avis, on ne devrait pas s'amuser à manipuler les gènes

(b) (juggle → statistics, figures) jouer avec; (consider → possibilities, alternatives) envisager, considérer;

∎ I'll play about with the figures and see if I can come up with something more reasonable je vais jouer un peu avec les chiffres et voir si je peux suggérer quelque chose de plus raisonnable;

∎ she played about with several endings for her novel elle a essayé plusieurs versions pour le dénouement de son roman

(c) familiar (trifle with)

∎ to play about with sb faire marcher qn

➲ play along

1 separable transitive verb

(tease, deceive) faire marcher

2 intransitive verb

(cooperate) coopérer;

∎ to play along with sb or with sb's plans entrer dans le jeu de qn;

∎ you'd better play along tu as tout intérêt à te montrer coopératif

➲ play around intransitive verb

(a) = play about

(b) familiar (have several lovers) coucher à droite et à gauche

➲ play around with = play about with

➲ play at inseparable transitive verb

(a) (of child) jouer à;

∎ to play at cops and robbers jouer aux gendarmes et aux voleurs;

∎ familiar just what do you think you're playing at? à quoi tu joues exactement?

(b) (dabble in → politics, journalism) faire en dilettante;

∎ you're just playing at being an artist tu joues les artistes;

∎ you can't play at being a revolutionary tu ne peux pas t'improviser révolutionnaire

➲ play back separable transitive verb

(cassette, film) repasser;

∎ play the last ten frames back repassez les dix dernières images

➲ play by separable transitive verb

familiar

∎ play it by me again reprenez votre histoire depuis le début^□

➲ play down separable transitive verb

(role, victory) minimiser; (problem) dédramatiser;

∎ we've been asked to play down the political aspects of the affair on nous a demandé de ne pas insister sur le côté politique de l'affaire;

∎ her book rightly plays down the conspiracy theory son livre minimise à juste titre la thèse du complot

➲ play in separable transitive verb

(a) (in basketball)

∎ to play the ball in remettre la balle en jeu

(b) British figurative

∎ to play oneself in s'habituer, se faire la main

(c) (with music) accueillir en musique

➲ play off intransitive verb

(teams, contestants) disputer un match de barrage

➲ play off against separable transitive verb

∎ he played Neil off against his father il a monté Neil contre son père;

∎ he played his enemies off against each other il a monté ses ennemis l'un contre l'autre

➲ play on

1 inseparable transitive verb

(weakness, naivety, trust, feelings) jouer sur;

∎ his political strength comes from playing on people's fears il tire sa force politique de sa capacité à jouer sur la peur des gens;

∎ the waiting began to play on my nerves l'attente commençait à me porter sur les nerfs;

∎ the title plays on a line from Shakespeare le titre est un jeu de mots sur une phrase de Shakespeare

2 intransitive verb

continuer à jouer;

∎ the referee waved them to play on l'arbitre leur fit signe de continuer à jouer

➲ play out separable transitive verb

(a) (enact → scene) jouer; (→ fantasy) satisfaire;

∎ the events being played out on the world's stage les événements qui se déroulent dans le monde;

∎ the drama was played out between rioters and police les incidents ont eu lieu entre les émeutiers et les forces de police

(b) (usu passive) familiar (exhaust) to be played out (person, horse etc) être vanné ou éreinté^□ ; (idea) être vieux jeu^□ ou démodé^□ ; (story) avoir perdu tout intérêt^□

(c) (with music)

∎ they were played out to the strains of… leur départ a été accompagné par l'air de…

➲ play through intransitive verb

Golf dépasser d'autres joueurs;

∎ may we play through? vous permettez que nous vous dépassions?

➲ play up

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (exaggerate → role, importance) exagérer; (stress) souligner, insister sur;

∎ in the interview, play up your sales experience pendant l'entretien, mettez en avant ou insistez sur votre expérience de la vente;

∎ his speech played up his working-class background son discours mettait l'accent sur ses origines populaires;

∎ the press played up her divorce la presse a monté son divorce en épingle

(b) British familiar (bother) tracasser^□ ;

∎ my back is playing me up mon dos me joue encore des tours;

∎ don't let the kids play you up ne laissez pas les enfants vous marcher sur les pieds

2 intransitive verb

British familiar (car, child, TV, machine etc) faire des siennes;

∎ my back is playing up mon dos me joue encore des tours

➲ play up to inseparable transitive verb

familiar

∎ to play up to sb (flatter) faire de la lèche à qn

➲ play upon inseparable transitive verb

= play on¹

➲ play with inseparable transitive verb

(a) (toy with → pencil, hair) jouer avec;

∎ he was playing with the radio dials il jouait avec les boutons de la radio;

∎ he only played with his food il a à peine touché à son assiette;

∎ figurative to play with fire jouer avec le feu

(b) (manipulate → words) jouer sur; (→ rhyme, language) manier;

∎ she plays with language in bold and startling ways elle manipule la langue avec une audace saisissante

(c) (consider → idea) caresser;

∎ he played with the idea for weeks before rejecting it il a caressé l'idée pendant des semaines avant de l'abandonner;

∎ we're playing with the idea of buying a house nous pensons à acheter une maison;

∎ here are a few suggestions to play with voici quelques suggestions que je soumets à votre réflexion

(d) (treat casually)

∎ to play with sb's affections jouer avec les sentiments de qn;

∎ don't you see he's just playing with you? tu ne vois pas qu'il se moque de toi ou qu'il te fait marcher?

(e) (have available → money, time) disposer de;

∎ how much time have we got to play with? de combien de temps disposons-nous?;

∎ they've got $2 million to play with ils disposent de deux millions de dollars

(f) familiar

∎ to play with oneself (masturbate) se toucher

ⓘ Play it again Sam Cette formule célèbre ("joue-le encore, Sam"), que l'on attribue au film Casablanca, n'est en fait pas prononcée dans le film. Le personnage incarné par Ingrid Bergman dit au pianiste du Rick's Bar play it once Sam, for old times' sake ("joue-le une fois, Sam, en souvenir du bon vieux temps"). Aujourd'hui on utilise cette formule en allusion au film lorsque l'on demande à quelqu'un de refaire quelque chose, et particulièrement lorsqu'il s'agit de rejouer un air de musique.

set [set]

jeu ⇒ 1 (a) série ⇒ 1 (a) ensemble ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (c) cercle ⇒ 1 (b) appareil ⇒ 1 (d) poste ⇒ 1 (d) set ⇒ 1 (e) fixe ⇒ 2 (a) arrêté ⇒ 2 (b) figé ⇒ 2 (b) résolu ⇒ 2 (c) prêt ⇒ 2 (d) mettre ⇒ 3 (a), 3 (c), 3 (d) poser ⇒ 3 (a), 3 (c), 3 (e), 3 (i) situer ⇒ 3 (b) régler ⇒ 3 (c) fixer ⇒ 3 (f), 3 (i) établir ⇒ 3 (f) faire prendre ⇒ 3 (h) se coucher ⇒ 4 (a) prendre ⇒ 4 (b)

(pt & pp set, cont setting)

1 noun

(a) (of tools, keys, golf clubs, sails) jeu m; (of numbers, names, instructions, stamps, weights) série f; (of books) collection f; (of furniture) ensemble m; (of cutlery, dishes, glasses) service m; (of lingerie) parure f; (of wheels) train m; (of facts, conditions, characteristics, data) ensemble m; (of events, decisions, questions) série f, suite f; Typography (of proofs, characters) jeu m; Computing (of characters, instructions) jeu m, ensemble m;

∎ a set of matching luggage un ensemble de valises assorties;

∎ a set of table/bed linen une parure de table/de lit;

∎ a set of sheets une parure de lit;

∎ badminton/chess set jeu m de badminton/d'échecs;

∎ they're playing with Damian's train set ils jouent avec le train électrique de Damian;

∎ the cups/the chairs are sold in sets of six les tasses/les chaises sont vendues par six;

∎ I can't break up the set je ne peux pas les dépareiller;

∎ they make a set ils vont ensemble;

∎ to collect the (whole) set rassembler toute la collection, faire la collection;

∎ he made me a duplicate set (of keys) il m'a fait un double des clés; (of contact lenses) il m'en a fait une autre paire;

∎ a full set of the encyclopedia une encyclopédie complète;

∎ a full set of Tolstoy's works les œuvres complètes de Tolstoï;

∎ they've detected two sets of fingerprints ils ont relevé deux séries d'empreintes digitales ou les empreintes digitales de deux personnes;

∎ given another set of circumstances, things might have turned out differently dans d'autres circonstances, les choses auraient pu se passer différemment;

∎ the first set of reforms la première série ou le premier train de réformes;

∎ they ran a whole set of tests on me ils m'ont fait subir toute une série d'examens

(b) (social group) cercle m, milieu m;

∎ he's not in our set il n'appartient pas à notre cercle;

∎ we don't go around in the same set nous ne fréquentons pas le même milieu ou monde;

∎ the riding/yachting set le monde ou milieu de l'équitation/du yachting;

∎ the literary set les milieux mpl littéraires;

∎ the Markham set Markham et ses amis

(c) Mathematics ensemble m

(d) (electrical device) appareil m; (radio, TV) poste m;

∎ a colour TV set un poste de télévision ou un téléviseur couleur

(e) Sport set m, manche f;

∎ first set to Miss Williams set Williams

(f) Cinema & Television plateau m; Theatre (stage) scène f; (scenery) décor m;

∎ on (the) set Cinema & Television sur le plateau; Theatre sur scène

(g) (part of performance → by singer, group)

∎ he'll be playing two sets tonight il va jouer à deux reprises ce soir;

∎ her second set was livelier la deuxième partie de son spectacle a été plus animée

(h) British School groupe m de niveau

(i) (for hair) mise f en plis;

∎ to have a set se faire faire une mise en plis

(j) (posture → of shoulders, body) position f, attitude f; (→ of head) port m;

∎ I could tell he was angry by the set of his jaw rien qu'à la façon dont il serrait les mâchoires, j'ai compris qu'il était en colère

(k) (direction → of wind, current) direction f;

∎ suddenly the set of the wind changed le vent a tourné soudainement

(l) Psychology (tendency) tendance f

(m) Horticulture (seedling) semis m; (cutting) bouture f;

∎ tomato/tulip sets tomates fpl/tulipes fpl à repiquer

(n) (clutch of eggs) couvée f

(o) Hunting (of hound) arrêt m

(p) Building industry (paving stone) pavé m

(q) (of badger) terrier m

2 adjective

(a) (specified, prescribed → rule, price, quantity, sum, wage) fixe;

∎ meals are at set times les repas sont servis à heures fixes;

∎ there are no set rules for raising children il n'y a pas de règles toutes faites pour l'éducation des enfants;

∎ the tasks must be done in the set order les tâches doivent être accomplies dans l'ordre prescrit;

∎ with no set purpose sans but précis

(b) (fixed, rigid → ideas, views) arrêté; (→ smile, frown) figé;

∎ her day followed a set routine sa journée se déroulait selon un rituel immuable;

∎ he has a set way of doing it il a sa méthode pour le faire;

∎ to be set in one's ways avoir ses (petites) habitudes;

∎ to become set in one's views devenir rigide dans ses opinions

(c) (intent, resolute) résolu, déterminé;

∎ to be set on or upon sth vouloir qch à tout prix;

∎ I'm (dead) set on finishing it tonight je suis (absolument) déterminé à le finir ce soir;

∎ he's dead set against it il s'y oppose formellement

(d) (ready, in position) prêt;

∎ are you (all) set to go? êtes-vous prêt à partir?

(e) (likely) probablement;

∎ he seems well set to win il semble être sur la bonne voie ou être bien parti pour gagner;

∎ house prices are set to rise steeply les prix de l'immobilier vont vraisemblablement monter en flèche

(f) British School (book, subject) au programme;

∎ one of our set books is 'Oliver Twist' un des ouvrages au programme est 'Oliver Twist'

3 transitive verb

(a) (put in specified place or position) mettre, poser;

∎ he set his cases down on the platform il posa ses valises sur le quai;

∎ to set sth before sb (dish, glass) placer qch devant qn; (proposal, plan) présenter qch à qn;

∎ she set the steaming bowl before him elle plaça le bol fumant devant lui;

∎ to set a proposal before the board présenter un projet au conseil d'administration;

∎ to set sb on his/her feet again remettre qn sur pied;

∎ to set a match to sth mettre le feu à qch;

∎ to set sb ashore débarquer qn

(b) (usu passive) (locate, situate → building, story) situer;

∎ the house is set in large grounds la maison est située dans un grand parc;

∎ his eyes are set too close together ses yeux sont trop rapprochés;

∎ the story is set in Tokyo l'histoire se passe ou se déroule à Tokyo;

∎ her novels are set in the 18th century ses romans se passent au XVIIIème siècle

(c) (adjust → clock, mechanism) régler; (→ alarm) mettre; Computing (→ tabs, format) poser;

∎ I set my watch to New York time j'ai réglé ma montre à l'heure de New York;

∎ set your watches an hour ahead avancez vos montres d'une heure;

∎ he's so punctual you can set your watch by him! il est si ponctuel qu'on peut régler sa montre sur lui!;

∎ I've set the alarm for six j'ai mis le réveil à (sonner pour) six heures;

∎ how do I set the margins? comment est-ce que je fais pour placer les marges?;

∎ set the timer for one hour mettez le minuteur sur une heure;

∎ first set the control knob to the desired temperature mettez tout d'abord le bouton de réglage sur la température voulue;

∎ the lever was set in the off position le levier était sur "arrêt"

(d) (fix into position) mettre, fixer; (jewel, diamond) sertir, monter;

∎ the handles are set into the drawers les poignées sont encastrées dans les tiroirs;

∎ there was a peephole set in the door il y avait un judas dans la porte;

∎ to set a stake in the ground enfoncer ou planter un pieu dans la terre;

∎ metal bars had been set in the concrete des barres en métal avaient été fixées dans le béton;

∎ the brooch was set with pearls la broche était sertie de perles;

∎ the ruby was set in a simple ring le rubis était monté sur un simple anneau;

∎ Medicine to set a bone réduire une fracture;

∎ figurative his face was set in a frown son visage était figé dans une grimace renfrognée;

∎ she set her jaw and refused to budge elle serra les dents et refusa de bouger;

∎ we had set ourselves to resist nous étions déterminés à résister

(e) (lay, prepare in advance → trap) poser, tendre;

∎ to set the table mettre le couvert ou la table;

∎ to set the table for two mettre deux couverts;

∎ set an extra place at table rajoutez un couvert

(f) (establish → date, price, schedule, terms) fixer, déterminer; (→ rule, guideline, objective, target) établir; (→ mood, precedent) créer;

∎ they still haven't set a date for the party ils n'ont toujours pas fixé de date pour la réception;

∎ you've set yourself a tough deadline or a tough deadline for yourself vous vous êtes fixé un délai très court;

∎ it's up to them to set their own production targets c'est à eux d'établir ou de fixer leurs propres objectifs de production;

∎ a deficit ceiling has been set un plafonnement du déficit a été imposé ou fixé ou décidé;

∎ to set a value on sth décider de la valeur de qch;

∎ figurative they set a high value on creativity ils accordent une grande valeur à la créativité;

∎ the price was set at £500 le prix a été fixé à 500 livres;

∎ the judge set bail at $1,000 le juge a fixé la caution à 1000 dollars;

∎ how are exchange rates set? comment les taux de change sont-ils déterminés?;

∎ to set an age limit at… fixer une limite d'âge à…;

∎ to set a new fashion or trend lancer une nouvelle mode;

∎ to set a new world record établir un nouveau record mondial;

∎ to set the tone for or of sth donner le ton de qch

(g) (indicating change of state or activity)

∎ to set sth alight or on fire mettre le feu à qch;

∎ it sets my nerves on edge ça me crispe;

∎ also figurative she set me in the right direction elle m'a mis sur la bonne voie;

∎ to set sb against sb monter qn contre qn;

∎ he/the incident set the taxman on my trail il/l'incident a mis le fisc sur ma piste;

∎ to set the dogs on sb lâcher les chiens sur qn;

∎ the incident set the family against him l'incident a monté la famille contre lui;

∎ it will set the country on the road to economic recovery cela va mettre le pays sur la voie de la reprise économique;

∎ his failure set him thinking son échec lui a donné à réfléchir;

∎ the scandal will set the whole town talking le scandale va faire jaser toute la ville;

∎ to set the dog barking faire aboyer le chien;

∎ the wind set the leaves dancing le vent a fait frissonner les feuilles;

∎ to set a machine going mettre une machine en marche

(h) (solidify → yoghurt, jelly, concrete) faire prendre;

∎ pectin will help to set the jam la pectine aidera à épaissir la confiture

(i) (pose → problem) poser; (assign → task) fixer;

∎ the strikers' demands set the management a difficult problem les exigences des grévistes posent un problème difficile à la direction;

∎ I set them to work tidying the garden je les ai mis au désherbage du jardin;

∎ I've set myself the task of writing to them regularly je me suis fixé la tâche de leur écrire régulièrement

(j) British School (exam) composer, choisir les questions de; (books, texts) mettre au programme;

∎ she set the class a maths exercise, she set a maths exercise for the class elle a donné un exercice de maths à la classe;

∎ who sets the test questions? qui choisit les questions de l'épreuve?

(k) (hair)

∎ to set sb's hair faire une mise en plis à qn;

∎ and I've just had my hair set! et je viens de me faire faire une mise en plis!;

∎ I set my own hair je me fais moi-même mes mises en plis

(l) Horticulture (plant) planter

(m) Typography (text, page) composer;

∎ to set type composer

(n) Music (poem, words)

∎ to set sth to music mettre qch en musique

4 intransitive verb

(a) (sun, moon, stars) se coucher;

∎ we saw the sun setting nous avons vu le coucher du soleil

(b) (become firm → glue, cement, plaster, jelly, yoghurt) prendre;

∎ her features had set in an expression of determination ses traits s'étaient durcis en une expression de très forte détermination

(c) (bone) se ressouder

(d) (start) se mettre;

∎ he set to work il s'est mis au travail

(e) (plant, tree) prendre racine

(f) (hen) couver

(g) (wind, tide)

∎ the wind looks set fair to the east on dirait un vent d'ouest

(h) Hunting (hound) tomber en arrêt

►► Theatre, Cinema & Television set designer décorateur(trice) m,f;

Grammar set expression expression f figée;

set figures (in skating) figures fpl imposées;

set meal, set menu meal menu m;

Grammar set phrase expression f figée;

(a) Art, Literature & Music morceau m de bravoure

(b) (fireworks) pièce f (de feu) d'artifice

(c) (of scenery) élément m de décor

(d) Sport combinaison f préparée ou calculée;

Sport set point (in tennis) balle f de set;

Technology set screw vis f de réglage;

Sport set scrum (in rugby) mêlée f fermée;

set square équerre f (à dessiner);

set task tâche f assignée;

∎ to give sb a set task to do assigner à qn une tâche bien précise;

Mathematics set theory théorie f des ensembles

➲ set about inseparable transitive verb

(a) (start → task) se mettre à;

∎ she set about changing the tyre elle s'est mise à changer le pneu;

∎ I didn't know how to set about it je ne savais pas comment m'y prendre;

∎ how does one set about getting a visa? comment fait-on pour obtenir un visa?

(b) (attack) attaquer, s'en prendre à;

∎ he set about the mugger with his umbrella il s'en est pris à son agresseur à coups de parapluie

➲ set against separable transitive verb

(a) (compare)

∎ to set sth against sth comparer qch à qch;

∎ to set the benefits against the costs évaluer les bénéfices par rapport aux coûts;

∎ we must set the government's promises against its achievements nous devons examiner les promesses du gouvernement à la lumière de ses actions

(b) Finance (offset)

∎ some of these expenses can be set against tax certaines de ces dépenses peuvent être déduites des impôts

(c) (friends, family) monter contre;

∎ religious differences have set family against family les différences religieuses ont monté les familles les unes contre les autres;

∎ to set oneself or one's face against sth s'opposer résolument à qch

➲ set ahead separable transitive verb

American

∎ to set the clock ahead avancer l'horloge;

∎ we're setting the clocks ahead tonight on change d'heure cette nuit

➲ set apart separable transitive verb

(a) (place separately → object) mettre à part ou de côté;

∎ there was one deck chair set slightly apart from the others il y avait une chaise longue un peu à l'écart des autres;

∎ they set themselves apart ils faisaient bande à part

(b) (distinguish) distinguer ( from de);

∎ her talent sets her apart from the other students son talent la distingue des autres étudiants

➲ set aside separable transitive verb

(a) (put down → knitting, book) poser;

∎ could you set aside what you're working on for a while? pouvez-vous laisser ce que vous êtes en train de faire un moment?

(b) (reserve, keep → time, place) réserver; (→ money) mettre de côté; (→ arable land) mettre en friche;

∎ I've set tomorrow aside for house hunting j'ai réservé la journée de demain pour chercher une maison;

∎ the room is set aside for meetings la pièce est réservée aux réunions;

∎ can you set the book aside for me? pourriez-vous me mettre ce livre de côté?;

∎ chop the onions and set them aside coupez les oignons et réservez-les

(c) (overlook, disregard) mettre de côté, oublier, passer sur;

∎ they set their differences aside in order to work together ils ont mis de côté leurs différences pour travailler ensemble

(d) (reject → dogma, proposal, offer) rejeter

(e) Law (annul → contract, will) annuler; (→ verdict, judgment) casser

➲ set back separable transitive verb

(a) (situate towards the rear)

∎ the building is set back slightly from the road l'immeuble est un peu en retrait par rapport à la route

(b) (delay → plans, progress) retarder;

∎ his illness set him back a month in his work sa maladie l'a retardé d'un mois dans son travail;

∎ the news may set him or his recovery back la nouvelle risque de retarder sa guérison;

∎ this decision will set the economy back ten years cette décision va faire revenir l'économie dix ans en arrière

(c) familiar (cost) coûter à^□ ;

∎ the trip will set her back a bit le voyage va lui coûter cher

➲ set down separable transitive verb

(a) (tray, bag etc) poser

(b) British (passenger) déposer;

∎ the bus sets you down in front of the station le bus vous dépose devant la gare

(c) (note, record) noter, inscrire;

∎ try and set your thoughts down on paper essayez de mettre vos pensées par écrit

(d) (establish → rule, condition) établir, fixer;

∎ the government has set down a margin for pay increases le gouvernement a fixé une fourchette pour les augmentations de salaire;

∎ permissible levels of pollution are set down in the regulations les taux de pollution tolérés sont fixés dans les réglementations;

∎ to set sth down in writing coucher qch par écrit;

∎ it is clearly set down that drivers must be insured il est clairement signalé ou indiqué que tout conducteur doit être assuré

➲ set forth

1 inseparable transitive verb

formal (expound → plan, objections) exposer, présenter;

∎ the recommendations are set forth in the last chapter les recommandations sont détaillées ou énumérées dans le dernier chapitre

2 intransitive verb

literary partir, se mettre en route

➲ set in

1 intransitive verb

(problems) survenir, surgir; (disease) se déclarer; (winter) commencer; (night) tomber;

∎ if infection sets in si la plaie s'infecte;

∎ the bad weather has set in for the winter le mauvais temps s'est installé pour tout l'hiver;

∎ panic set in (began) la panique éclata; (lasted) la panique s'installa

2 separable transitive verb

Sewing (sleeve) monter

➲ set off

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (alarm) déclencher; (bomb) faire exploser; (fireworks) faire partir

(b) (reaction, process, war) déclencher, provoquer;

∎ their offer set off another round of talks leur proposition a déclenché une autre série de négociations;

∎ it set her off on a long tirade against bureaucracy cela eut pour effet de la lancer dans une longue tirade contre la bureaucratie;

∎ to set sb off laughing faire rire qn;

∎ this answer set them off (laughing) cette réponse a déclenché les rires;

∎ one look at his face set me off again en le voyant, mon fou rire a repris de plus belle;

∎ if you say anything it'll only set him off (crying) again si tu dis quoi que ce soit, il va se remettre à pleurer;

∎ the smallest amount of pollen will set her off la moindre dose de pollen lui déclenche une réaction allergique;

∎ don't mention Maradona or you'll set him off again surtout ne prononce pas le nom de Maradona sinon il va recommencer;

∎ someone mentioned the war and of course that set Uncle Arthur off quelqu'un prononça le mot guerre, et évidemment, oncle Arthur embraya aussitôt sur le sujet;

∎ figurative to set sb off on the wrong track mettre qn sur une fausse piste

(c) (enhance) mettre en valeur;

∎ the vase sets off the flowers beautifully le vase met vraiment les fleurs en valeur

(d) Finance (offset)

∎ some of these expenses can be set off against tax certaines de ces dépenses peuvent être déduites des impôts

2 intransitive verb

partir, se mettre en route;

∎ he set off at a run il est parti en courant;

∎ I set off to explore the town je suis parti explorer la ville;

∎ after lunch, we set off again après le déjeuner, nous avons repris la route

➲ set on

1 inseparable transitive verb

(attack) attaquer, s'en prendre à

2 separable transitive verb

(a) (cause to follow)

∎ to set the police on the tracks of a thief mettre la police aux trousses d'un voleur;

∎ to set sb on his/her way mettre qn sur les rails

(b) (cause to attack)

∎ to set a dog on sb lâcher un chien sur qn

➲ set out

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (arrange → chairs, game pieces) disposer; (→ merchandise) étaler;

∎ the shopping centre is very well set out le centre commercial est très bien conçu

(b) (present → ideas) exposer, présenter;

∎ the information is set out in the table below ces données sont présentées dans le tableau ci-dessous

2 intransitive verb

(a) (leave) se mettre en route, partir;

∎ just as he was setting out au moment de son départ;

∎ to set out for school partir pour l'école;

∎ to set out again repartir;

∎ to set out in pursuit/in search of sb se mettre à la poursuite/à la recherche de qn

(b) (undertake course of action) entreprendre;

∎ he has trouble finishing what he sets out to do il a du mal à terminer ce qu'il entreprend;

∎ I can't remember now what I set out to do je ne me souviens plus de ce que je voulais faire à l'origine;

∎ they all set out with the intention of changing the world au début, ils veulent tous changer le monde;

∎ she didn't deliberately set out to annoy you il n'était pas dans ses intentions de vous froisser;

∎ his theory sets out to prove that… sa théorie a pour objet de prouver que…

➲ set to intransitive verb

(a) (begin work) commencer, s'y mettre;

∎ we set to with a will nous nous y sommes mis avec ardeur

(b) familiar (two people → start arguing) avoir une prise de bec; (→ start fighting) en venir aux mains

➲ set up

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (install → equipment, computer) installer; (→ roadblock) installer, disposer; (→ experiment) préparer;

∎ everything's set up for the show tout est préparé ou prêt pour le spectacle;

∎ set the chairs up in a circle mettez ou disposez les chaises en cercle;

∎ he set the chessboard up il a disposé les pièces sur l'échiquier;

∎ the equation sets up a relation between the two variables l'équation établit un rapport entre les deux variables;

∎ the system wasn't set up to handle so many users le système n'était pas conçu pour gérer autant d'usagers;

∎ he set the situation up so she couldn't refuse il a arrangé la situation de telle manière qu'elle ne pouvait pas refuser

(b) (erect, build → tent, furniture kit, crane, flagpole) monter; (→ shed, shelter) construire; (→ monument, statue) ériger;

∎ to set up camp installer ou dresser le camp

(c) (start up, institute → business, scholarship) créer; (→ hospital, school) fonder; (→ committee, task force) constituer; (→ system of government, republic) instaurer; (→ programme, review process, system) mettre en place; (→ inquiry) ouvrir; (→ dinner, meeting, appointment) organiser;

∎ to set up house or home s'installer;

∎ they set up house together ils se sont mis en ménage;

∎ to set up a dialogue entamer le dialogue;

∎ you'll be in charge of setting up training programmes vous serez responsable de la mise en place des programmes de formation;

∎ the medical system set up after the war le système médical mis en place après la guerre

(d) (financially, in business → person) installer, établir;

∎ he set his son up in a dry-cleaning business il a acheté à son fils une entreprise de nettoyage à sec;

∎ she could finally set herself up as an accountant elle pourrait enfin s'installer comme comptable;

∎ the money would set him up for life l'argent le mettrait à l'abri du besoin pour le restant de ses jours;

∎ the army set him up as a dictator l'armée l'installa comme dictateur

(e) (provide)

∎ we're well set up with supplies nous sommes bien approvisionnés;

∎ she can set you up with a guide/the necessary papers elle peut vous procurer un guide/les papiers qu'il vous faut;

∎ I can set you up with a girlfriend of mine je peux te présenter à ou te faire rencontrer une de mes copines

(f) (restore energy to) remonter, remettre sur pied;

∎ have a brandy, that'll set you up prends un cognac, ça va te remonter

(g) familiar (frame) monter un coup contre;

∎ she claims she was set up elle prétend qu'elle est victime d'un coup monté;

∎ he was set up as the fall guy on a fait de lui le bouc émissaire^□, il a joué le rôle de bouc émissaire^□

(h) Typography (text) composer

2 intransitive verb

s'installer, s'établir;

∎ he's setting up in the fast-food business il se lance dans la restauration rapide;

∎ to set up on one's own (business) s'installer à son compte; (home) prendre son propre appartement

➲ set upon inseparable transitive verb

(physically or verbally) attaquer, s'en prendre à

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

run [rʌn]

course ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b) excursion ⇒ 1 (c) trajet ⇒ 1 (e) vol ⇒ 1 (f) série ⇒ 1 (i), 1 (k) tendance ⇒ 1 (l) ruée ⇒ 1 (m) diriger ⇒ 2 (a) organiser ⇒ 2 (b) (faire) marcher ⇒ 2 (c), 3 (k) courir ⇒ 2 (e), 3 (a), 3 (b) transporter ⇒ 2 (i) conduire ⇒ 2 (k) (faire) passer ⇒ 2 (l), 2 (m), 3 (d) se sauver ⇒ 3 (c) couler ⇒ 3 (h), 3 (i) fondre ⇒ 3 (i) circuler ⇒ 3 (l) durer ⇒ 3 (m) être à l'affiche ⇒ 3 (n) (se) présenter ⇒ 2 (q), 3 (r)

(pt ran [ræn], pp run, cont running)

1 noun

(a) (action) course f;

∎ he took a short run and cleared the gate après un court élan il a franchi la barrière;

∎ at a run en courant;

∎ to go for a run aller faire du jogging;

∎ to go for a 5-mile run ≃ courir 8 kilomètres;

∎ I took the dog for a run in the park j'ai emmené le chien courir dans le parc;

∎ two policemen arrived at a run deux policiers sont arrivés au pas de course;

∎ to break into a run se mettre à courir;

∎ to make a run for it prendre la fuite, se sauver;

∎ the murderer is on the run le meurtrier est en cavale;

∎ she was on the run from her creditors/the police elle essayait d'échapper à ses créanciers/à la police;

∎ we've got them on the run! nous les avons mis en déroute!;

∎ figurative we have the run of the house while the owners are away nous disposons de toute la maison pendant l'absence des propriétaires;

∎ we give the au pair the run of the place nous laissons à la jeune fille au pair la libre disposition de la maison;

∎ you've had a good run (for your money), it's time to step down tu en as bien profité, maintenant il faut laisser la place à un autre;

∎ they gave the Russian team a good run for their money ils ont donné du fil à retordre à l'équipe soviétique;

∎ familiar to have the runs (diarrhoea) avoir la courante

(b) (race) course f;

∎ a charity run une course de charité

(c) (drive) excursion f, promenade f;

∎ we went for a run down to the coast nous sommes allés nous promener au bord de la mer;

∎ she took me for a run in her new car elle m'a emmené faire un tour dans sa nouvelle voiture;

∎ humorous shall I make or do a beer run? je vais chercher de la bière?;

∎ I do the school run in the morning c'est moi qui emmène les enfants à l'école tous les matins

(d) (for smuggling) passage m;

∎ the gang used to make runs across the border le gang passait régulièrement la frontière

(e) (route, itinerary) trajet m, parcours m;

∎ the buses on the London to Glasgow run les cars qui font le trajet ou qui assurent le service Londres-Glasgow;

∎ he used to do the London (to) Glasgow run (pilot, bus or train driver) il faisait la ligne Londres-Glasgow;

∎ it's only a short run into town le trajet jusqu'au centre-ville n'est pas long;

∎ there was very little traffic on the run down nous avons rencontré très peu de circulation

(f) Aviation (flight) vol m, mission f;

∎ bombing run mission f de bombardement

(g) Sport (in cricket, baseball) point m;

∎ to make 10 runs marquer 10 points

(h) (track → for skiing, bobsleighing) piste f

(i) (series, sequence) série f, succession f, suite f;

∎ they've had a run of ten defeats ils ont connu dix défaites consécutives;

∎ the recent run of events la récente série d'événements;

∎ a run of bad luck une série ou suite de malheurs;

∎ you seem to be having a run of good/bad luck on dirait que la chance est/n'est pas de ton côté en ce moment;

∎ the play had a triumphant run on Broadway la pièce a connu un succès triomphal à Broadway;

∎ the play had a run of nearly two years la pièce a tenu l'affiche (pendant) presque deux ans;

∎ to have a long run (of fashion, person in power) tenir longtemps; (of play) tenir longtemps l'affiche;

∎ in the long/short run à long/court terme

(j) (in card games) suite f

(k) (of product) lot m, série f; (of book) tirage m;

∎ a run of fewer than 500 would be uneconomical fabriquer une série de moins de 500 unités ne serait pas rentable

(l) (general tendency, trend) tendance f;

∎ to score against the run of play marquer contre le jeu;

∎ I was lucky and got the run of the cards j'avais de la chance, les cartes m'étaient favorables;

∎ the usual run of colds and upset stomachs les rhumes et les maux de ventre habituels;

∎ she's well above the average or ordinary run of students elle est bien au-dessus de la moyenne des étudiants;

∎ the ordinary run of mankind le commun des mortels;

∎ in the ordinary run of things normalement, en temps normal;

∎ out of the common run hors du commun

(m) (great demand → on product, currency, Stock Exchange) ruée f (on sur);

∎ the heatwave caused a run on suntan cream la vague de chaleur provoqua une ruée sur les crèmes solaires;

∎ a run on the banks un retrait massif des dépôts bancaires;

∎ Stock Exchange there was a run on the dollar il y a eu une ruée sur le dollar

(n) (operation → of machine) opération f;

∎ computer run passage m machine

(o) (bid → in election) candidature f;

∎ his run for the presidency sa candidature à la présidence

(p) (ladder → in stocking, tights) échelle f, maille f filée;

∎ I've got a run in my tights mon collant est filé

(q) (enclosure → for animals) enclos m;

∎ chicken run poulailler m

(r) (of salmon) remontée f

(s) Music roulade f

2 transitive verb

(a) (manage → company, office) diriger, gérer; (→ shop, restaurant, club) tenir; (→ theatre) diriger; (→ farm) exploiter; (→ newspaper, magazine) rédiger; (→ house) tenir; (→ country) gouverner, diriger;

∎ she runs the bar while her parents are away elle tient le bar pendant l'absence de ses parents;

∎ a badly run organization une organisation mal gérée;

∎ the library is run by volunteer workers la bibliothèque est tenue par des bénévoles;

∎ the farm was too big for him to run alone la ferme était trop grande pour qu'il puisse s'en occuper seul;

∎ who's running this outfit? qui est le patron ici?;

∎ I wish she'd stop trying to run my life! j'aimerais bien qu'elle arrête de me dire comment vivre ma vie!

(b) (organize, lay on → service, course, contest) organiser; (→ train, bus) mettre en service;

∎ to run a bridge tournament/a raffle organiser un tournoi de bridge/une tombola;

∎ they run evening classes in computing ils organisent des cours du soir en informatique;

∎ they run extra trains in the summer l'été ils mettent (en service) des trains supplémentaires;

∎ several private companies run buses to the airport plusieurs sociétés privées assurent un service d'autobus pour l'aéroport

(c) (operate → piece of equipment) faire marcher, faire fonctionner; Computing (program) exécuter, faire tourner;

∎ you can run it off solar energy/the mains vous pouvez le faire fonctionner à l'énergie solaire/sur secteur;

∎ this computer runs most software on peut utiliser la plupart des logiciels sur cet ordinateur;

∎ Aviation to run the engines (for checking) faire le point fixe;

∎ I can't afford to run a car any more je n'ai plus les moyens d'avoir une voiture;

∎ she runs a Porsche elle roule en Porsche

(d) (conduct → experiment, test) effectuer

(e) (do or cover at a run → race, distance) courir;

∎ to run the marathon courir le marathon;

∎ I can still run 2 km in under 7 minutes j'arrive encore à courir ou à couvrir 2 km en moins de 7 minutes;

∎ the children were running races les enfants faisaient la course;

∎ the race will be run in Paris next year la course aura lieu à Paris l'année prochaine;

∎ to run messages or errands faire des commissions ou des courses;

∎ he'd run a mile if he saw it il prendrait ses jambes à son cou s'il voyait ça;

∎ it looks as if his race is run on dirait qu'il a fait son temps

(f) (cause to run)

∎ to be run off one's feet être débordé;

∎ you're running the poor boy off his feet! le pauvre, tu es en train de l'épuiser!;

∎ to run oneself to a standstill courir jusqu'à l'épuisement

(g) (enter for race → horse, greyhound) faire courir

(h) (hunt, chase) chasser;

∎ to run deer chasser le cerf;

∎ the outlaws were run out of town les hors-la-loi furent chassés de la ville

(i) (transport → goods) transporter; (give lift to → person) conduire, emmener;

∎ I'll run you to the bus stop je vais te conduire à l'arrêt de bus;

∎ to run sb back home reconduire qn chez lui;

∎ I've got to run these boxes over to my new house je dois emporter ces boîtes dans ma nouvelle maison

(j) (smuggle) faire le trafic de;

∎ he's suspected of running drugs/guns il est soupçonné de trafic de drogue/d'armes

(k) (drive → vehicle) conduire;

∎ I ran the car into the driveway j'ai mis la voiture dans l'allée;

∎ could you run your car back a bit? pourriez-vous reculer un peu votre voiture?;

∎ I ran my car into a lamppost je suis rentré dans un réverbère (avec ma voiture);

∎ he tried to run me off the road! il a essayé de me faire sortir de la route!

(l) (pass, quickly or lightly) passer;

∎ he ran his hand through his hair il se passa la main dans les cheveux;

∎ he ran a comb through his hair il se donna un coup de peigne;

∎ I'll run a duster over the furniture je passerai un coup de chiffon sur les meubles;

∎ she ran her hands over the controls elle promena ses mains sur les boutons de commande;

∎ she ran her finger down the list/her eye over the text elle parcourut la liste du doigt/le texte des yeux

(m) (send via specified route) faire passer;

∎ it would be better to run the wires under the floorboards ce serait mieux de faire passer les fils sous le plancher;

∎ we could run a cable from the house nous pourrions amener un câble de la maison;

∎ run the other end of the rope through the loop passez l'autre bout de la corde dans la boucle

(n) (go through or past → blockade) forcer; (→ rapids) franchir; American (→ red light) brûler

(o) (cause to flow) faire couler;

∎ run the water into the basin faites couler l'eau dans la cuvette;

∎ to run a bath faire couler un bain

(p) (publish) publier;

∎ the local paper is running a series of articles on the scandal le journal local publie une série d'articles sur le scandale;

∎ to run an ad (in the newspaper) passer ou faire passer une annonce (dans le journal)

(q) (enter for election) présenter;

∎ they're running a candidate in every constituency ils présentent un candidat dans chaque circonscription

(r) Medicine

∎ to run a temperature or fever avoir de la fièvre

(s) (expose oneself to)

∎ to run the danger or risk of doing sth courir le risque de faire qch;

∎ you run the risk of a heavy fine vous risquez une grosse amende;

∎ do you realize the risks you're running? est-ce que vous réalisez les risques que vous prenez?

3 intransitive verb

(a) (gen) courir;

∎ I run every morning in the park je cours tous les matins dans le parc;

∎ to come running towards sb accourir vers qn;

∎ they ran out of the house ils sont sortis de la maison en courant;

∎ to run upstairs/downstairs monter/descendre l'escalier en courant;

∎ I had to run for the train j'ai dû courir pour attraper le train;

∎ she ran for the police elle a couru chercher la police;

∎ run and fetch me a glass of water cours me chercher un verre d'eau;

∎ I'll just run across or round or over to the shop je fais un saut à l'épicerie;

∎ to run to meet sb courir ou se précipiter à la rencontre de qn;

∎ I've been running all over the place looking for you j'ai couru partout à ta recherche;

∎ figurative I didn't expect her to go running to the press with the story je ne m'attendais pas à ce qu'elle coure raconter l'histoire à la presse;

∎ don't come running to me with your problems ne viens pas m'embêter avec tes problèmes

(b) (compete in race) courir; (score in cricket, baseball) marquer;

∎ to run in a race (horse, person) participer à une course;

∎ there are twenty horses running in the race vingt chevaux participent à la course;

∎ she ran for her country in the Olympics elle a couru pour son pays aux jeux Olympiques

(c) (flee) se sauver, fuir;

∎ run for your lives! sauve qui peut!;

∎ familiar if the night watchman sees you, run for it! si le veilleur de nuit te voit, tire-toi ou file!;

∎ figurative you can't just keep running from your past vous ne pouvez pas continuer à fuir votre passé

(d) (pass → road, railway, boundary) passer;

∎ a tunnel runs under the mountain un tunnel passe sous la montagne;

∎ the railway line runs through a valley/over a viaduct le chemin de fer passe dans une vallée/sur un viaduc;

∎ the pipes run under the road les tuyaux passent sous la route;

∎ the road runs alongside the river/parallel to the coast la route longe la rivière/la côte;

∎ hedgerows run between the fields des haies séparent les champs;

∎ the road runs due north la route va droit vers le nord;

∎ to run north and south être orienté nord-sud;

∎ a canal running from London to Birmingham un canal qui va de Londres à Birmingham;

∎ a high fence runs around the building une grande barrière fait le tour du bâtiment;

∎ the lizard has red markings running down its back le dos du lézard est zébré de rouge;

∎ the line of print ran off the page la ligne a débordé de la feuille;

∎ figurative our lives seem to be running in different directions il semble que nos vies prennent des chemins différents

(e) (move, go → ball, vehicle) rouler; (slip, slide → rope, cable) filer;

∎ the pram ran down the hill out of control le landau a dévalé la côte;

∎ the tram runs on special tracks le tramway roule sur des rails spéciaux;

∎ the crane runs on rails la grue se déplace sur des rails;

∎ the piano runs on casters le piano est monté sur (des) roulettes;

∎ the truck ran off the road le camion a quitté la route;

∎ let the cord run through your hands laissez la corde filer entre vos mains;

∎ his fingers ran over the controls ses doigts se promenèrent sur les boutons de commande;

∎ her eyes ran down the list elle parcourut la liste des yeux;

∎ a shiver ran down my spine un frisson me parcourut le dos;

∎ his thoughts ran to that hot August day in Paris cette chaude journée d'août à Paris lui revint à l'esprit

(f) (words, text)

∎ how does that last verse run? c'est quoi la dernière strophe?;

∎ their argument or reasoning runs something like this voici plus ou moins leur raisonnement;

∎ the conversation ran something like this voilà en gros ce qui s'est dit

(g) (spread → rumour, news) se répandre

(h) (flow → river, water, tap, nose) couler;

∎ let the water run until it's hot laisse couler l'eau jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit chaude;

∎ the water's run cold l'eau est froide au robinet;

∎ you've let the water run cold tu as laissé couler l'eau trop longtemps, elle est devenue froide;

∎ your bath is running ton bain est en train de couler;

∎ your nose is running tu as le nez qui coule;

∎ the cold made our eyes run le froid nous piquait les yeux;

∎ the hot water runs along/down this pipe l'eau chaude passe/descend dans ce tuyau;

∎ their faces were running with sweat leurs visages ruisselaient de transpiration;

∎ tears ran down her face des larmes coulaient sur son visage;

∎ the streets were running with blood le sang coulait dans les rues;

∎ the river ran red with blood les eaux de la rivière étaient rouges de sang;

∎ the Jari runs into the Amazon le Jari se jette dans l'Amazone

(i) (butter, ice cream, wax) fondre; (cheese) couler; (paint) goutter;

∎ her mascara had run son mascara avait coulé

(j) (in wash → colour, fabric) déteindre;

∎ wash that dress separately, the colour might run lave cette robe à part, elle pourrait déteindre

(k) (operate → engine, machine, business) marcher, fonctionner;

∎ to run on or off electricity/gas/diesel fonctionner à l'électricité/au gaz/au diesel;

∎ this machine runs off the mains cet appareil se branche sur (le) secteur;

∎ the tape recorder was still running le magnétophone était encore en marche;

∎ leave the engine running laissez tourner le moteur;

∎ the engine is running smoothly le moteur tourne rond;

∎ the new assembly line is up and running la nouvelle chaîne de montage est en service;

∎ Computing do not interrupt the program while it is running ne pas interrompre le programme en cours d'exécution;

∎ Computing this software runs on DOS ce logiciel tourne sous DOS;

∎ Computing running at… cadencé à…;

∎ figurative everything is running smoothly tout marche très bien

(l) (public transport) circuler;

∎ this train doesn't run/only runs on Sundays ce train ne circule pas/ne circule que le dimanche;

∎ some bus lines run all night certaines lignes d'autobus sont en service toute la nuit;

∎ the buses stop running at midnight après minuit il n'y a plus de bus;

∎ trains running between London and Manchester trains qui circulent entre Londres et Manchester;

∎ trains running to Calais are cancelled les trains à destination de Calais sont annulés;

∎ he took the tube that runs through Clapham il prit la ligne de métro qui passe par Clapham

(m) (last) durer; (be valid → contract) être ou rester valide; (→ agreement) être ou rester en vigueur; Finance (→ interest) courir;

∎ the sales run from the beginning to the end of January les soldes durent du début à la fin janvier;

∎ the sales have only another two days to run il ne reste que deux jours de soldes;

∎ the meeting ran for an hour longer than expected la réunion a duré une heure de plus que prévu;

∎ I'd like the ad to run for a week je voudrais que l'annonce passe pendant une semaine;

∎ the lease has another year to run le bail n'expire pas avant un an;

∎ your subscription will run for two years votre abonnement sera valable deux ans;

∎ interest runs from 1 January les intérêts courent à partir du 1er janvier

(n) Cinema & Theatre (be performed → play, film) être à l'affiche;

∎ the play has been running for a year la pièce est à l'affiche depuis un an;

∎ the film is currently running in Hull le film est actuellement sur les écrans à Hull;

∎ his new musical should run and run! sa nouvelle comédie musicale devrait tenir l'affiche pendant des mois!;

∎ Television this soap opera has been running for twenty years ça fait vingt ans que ce feuilleton est diffusé;

∎ America's longest-running TV series la plus longue série télévisée américaine

(o) (occur → inherited trait, illness)

∎ twins run in our family les jumeaux sont courants dans la famille;

∎ heart disease runs in the family les maladies cardiaques sont fréquentes dans notre famille

(p) (range) aller;

∎ the colours run from dark blue to bright green les couleurs vont du bleu foncé au vert vif

(q) (indicating current state or condition)

∎ to run high (sea) être grosse ou houleuse;

∎ feelings or tempers were running high les esprits étaient échauffés;

∎ their ammunition was running low ils commençaient à manquer de munitions;

∎ our stores are running low nos provisions s'épuisent ou tirent à leur fin;

∎ he's running scared il a la frousse;

∎ to be running late être en retard, avoir du retard;

∎ programmes are running ten minutes late les émissions ont toutes dix minutes de retard;

∎ sorry I can't stop, I'm running a bit late désolé, je ne peux pas rester, je suis un peu en retard;

∎ events are running in our favour les événements tournent en notre faveur;

∎ inflation was running at 18 percent le taux d'inflation était de 18 pour cent

(r) (be candidate, stand) se présenter;

∎ to run for president or the presidency se présenter aux élections présidentielles, être candidat aux élections présidentielles ou à la présidence;

∎ to run for office se porter candidat;

∎ she's running on a law-and-order ticket elle se présente aux élections avec un programme basé sur la lutte contre l'insécurité;

∎ he ran against Reagan in 1984 il s'est présenté contre Reagan en 1984

(s) (drive) faire un tour ou une promenade;

∎ why don't we run down to the coast/up to London? si on faisait un tour jusqu'à la mer/jusqu'à Londres?

(t) Nautical (boat)

∎ to run (before the wind) filer vent arrière;

∎ to run aground échouer; figurative (project, plan) capoter

(u) (ladder → stocking, tights) filer

(v) (salmon) remonter les rivières

(w) (tide) monter

➲ run about intransitive verb

British courir (çà et là);

∎ I've been running about all day looking for you! j'ai passé ma journée à te chercher partout!

➲ run across

1 inseparable transitive verb

(meet → acquaintance) rencontrer par hasard, tomber sur; (find → book, reference) trouver par hasard, tomber sur

2 intransitive verb

traverser en courant

➲ run after inseparable transitive verb

also figurative courir après;

∎ it's not like her to run after a man ce n'est pas son genre de courir après un homme;

∎ she spends half her life running after her kids elle passe son temps à être derrière les enfants;

∎ he's got all these assistants running after him the whole time il a tout un tas d'assistants qui passent sans arrêt derrière ce qu'il fait

➲ run along intransitive verb

(go away) s'en aller, partir;

∎ it's getting late, I must be running along il se fait tard, il faut que j'y aille;

∎ run along to bed now, children! allez les enfants, au lit maintenant!

➲ run around intransitive verb familiar

(a) (from place to place) courir (çà et là)^□ ;

∎ I've been running around all day looking for you! j'ai passé ma journée à te chercher partout!^□

(b) (be unfaithful → husband) courir après les femmes; (→ wife) courir après les hommes;

∎ he was sure his wife was running around il était sûr que sa femme le trompait^□

➲ run around with inseparable transitive verb

familiar (be friendly with) fréquenter^□ ; (have affair with) sortir avec^□ ;

∎ he's always running around with other women il est toujours en train de courir après d'autres femmes

➲ run away intransitive verb

(a) (flee) se sauver, s'enfuir;